Topic outline

  • General

  • Introduction to Sociolinguistics




    1. Clearing the Ground: Basic Issues, Concepts and Approaches

    1.1 Introduction

    1.2 Relations between Language and Society

    1.3 Prescriptivism

    1.4 Standardisation

    1.5 Speech vs Writing

    1.6 Societies and Speech Communities

    1.7 Monolingualism and Multilingualism

    2. Regional Dialectology

    2.1 Introduction

    2.2 A Multilingual Project: The Linguistic Survey of India

    2.3 Monolingual Dialectology in Europe

    2.4 Modern Approaches to Dialect

    2.5 More Challenges for Dialectologists

    3. Social Dialectology

    3.1 Introduction

    3.2 Principles and Methods in Variationist Sociolinguistics:Three Case Studies

    3.3 Fieldwork Methods in Variationist Sociolinguistics

    3.4 A Closer Look at Stylistic and Social Categories

    3.5 Sociolinguistics on Trial: An Application of Urban Dialectology



    • Introduction to Sociolinguistics

      Sociolinguistics is a branch of language study that focuses on the relationship between language and society. The chapter begins by explaining the definition of language and its basic components. It emphasizes that language is a human and non-instinctive method of communication, involving the use of arbitrary vocal symbols. The chapter also introduces the concepts of signs, symbols, and icons in language, as well as the distinction between signs and objects.

      The historical development of sociolinguistics is then discussed, highlighting the influence of scholars such as Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf. It is noted that sociolinguistics emerged as a distinct field in the mid-20th century, with works like Weinreich's "Languages in Contact" and Haugen's study of the Norwegian language in America.

      The chapter  goes on to explain the different emphases in current sociolinguistics. It contrasts the Chomskyan approach, which focuses on the internal structures of language, with the social approach, which considers the social and contextual aspects of language use. The importance of communicative competence and the role of social interaction in language acquisition are emphasized.

      The relationship between language and society is explored, with language being seen as both reflective of and influential in social patterns and divisions. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which suggests that language shapes thought, is discussed, along with criticisms and limitations of the hypothesis. The chapter also touches on the fuzzy boundaries between languages and dialects, as well as the sociopolitical factors that determine the status of a variety.

      The chapter then delves into the debate between descriptive and prescriptive approaches to language. It explains that prescriptive linguistics focuses on notions of correctness and linguistic etiquette, while descriptive linguistics aims to describe and analyze language as it is used by different groups. The chapter presents arguments from both sides and discusses the need for a compromise position that acknowledges the existence and influence of language norms.

      Finally, the chapter addresses the issue of sexism in language and the role of sociolinguists in challenging and changing language practices that perpetuate gender inequalities. It highlights examples of sexism in English and the importance of considering language as a tool for both reflecting and challenging power imbalances in society.

      In this chapter, the concept of standardization and the rise of standard languages are discussed in relation to other dialects. A standard language is defined as a codified form of a language that is accepted and serves as a model for a larger speech community. Standardization occurs when a language is used for a wider range of functions, such as writing, education, and media. It involves the creation or acceptance of a variety as the most prestigious, based on its use by those with status and power in society. Parisian French and Middle English are given as examples of standard dialects that have gained prominence due to historical factors.

      The chapter also explores the power dynamics involved in standardization. The term "codified" refers to explicit statements of language norms, found in dictionaries and grammars, which highlight the social nature of the standardization process. It is important to note that a standard form of a language is not necessarily the original or pure form of the language, but rather a variety that has gained prestige and influence.

      The chapter also touches on the distinction between speech and writing. Writing is seen as an invention that came later in human history and is not a direct representation of language itself. It is a separate system of signs used to record language. However, writing has a significant impact on language and society, making it language-conscious and playing a crucial role in modern societies.

      The chapter concludes by discussing the concept of speech communities. A speech community is a group of people who are in habitual contact with each other through speech. It may include individuals who speak different primary languages but share common rules of speaking and interpreting language. The term "bilingualism" is used to refer to the use of two languages in a society, while "multilingualism" refers to the use of more than two languages. The chapter emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing the linguistic diversity within societies.



    • Traditional Dialectology

      Regional dialectology is the study of how language varies from one area to another. This field of study has its roots in nineteenth-century Europe and has since expanded to include multilingual territories like India. Traditional regional dialectology focused mainly on rural areas but newer studies have examined the effects of urbanization and labor movements on people's dialects.

      In sociolinguistics, the term "dialect" is used to describe the speech characteristic of a region or a group of people defined by social or occupational characteristics. Linguists often use the term "variety" instead of "dialect" to avoid political and linguistic distinctions. While everyone speaks a dialect, some linguists consider the standard variety of a community to be superior in certain contexts. The standard form of a language is a sociohistorical product and everyone's way of speaking is equally valid.

      Dialect humor often plays on small differences in language to mark social differences. For example, in Chinua Achebe's novel Things Fall Apart, people laugh at a character's dialect because he uses the word "buttocks" instead of "myself." In Frank McCourt's book 'Tis, an Irish immigrant in the US finds differences in vocabulary and expressions amusing and feels out of place.

      The Linguistic Survey of India, conducted by Sir George Grierson, was a significant multilingual project that collected data on languages in India. Grierson used questionnaires and recordings to collect data on language variation across the country. His work revealed that dialects can gradually merge into each other and are not separated by hard boundaries.

      In Europe, dialectology began as a result of theories within historical linguistics, but it soon became independent and focused on linguistic geography. Georg Wenker and Jules Gilliéron are considered pioneers of dialectology for their work in Germany and France, respectively. They used questionnaires and fieldwork to collect data on dialects.

      Dialectologists draw dialect maps to visualize the geographical dispersion of linguistic forms. Isoglosses, lines separating areas with different linguistic features, are used to mark dialect boundaries. Isoglosses can show major dialect areas, centers of prestige, relic areas, and transitional areas. The Rhenish Fan is a well-known case study in dialect transition, showing variation in the pronunciation of words affected by the High German Sound Shift.

      Critics of traditional dialectology argue that the informants used were not representative of the speech of the areas studied. Traditional surveys focused on individual language items rather than the overall system of language. Social scientists also questioned the validity of the surveys and raised concerns about questionnaire design and interviewer bias.

      In response to these criticisms, dialectologists have turned their attention to social and urban dialects and have embraced computer-based technologies to enhance their research methods. The study of regional dialects continues to evolve and offers valuable insights into language variation and its social implications.

      In this chapter, the author discusses modern approaches to studying dialects. Traditional dialect study focused on differentiating languages into dialects and studying older, rural speech forms that were becoming obsolete. However, modern studies now focus on urban speech and the new speech forms that arise from contact between speakers of different backgrounds.

      One particular area of interest in modern dialectology is the study of border dialects, which explore how one variety within a dialect continuum transitions into another. Traditional dialectology did not adequately examine the linguistic behavior of people living in linguistic borderlands. Scholars like Trudgill and Chambers have posited two types of subvarieties or 'lects' characteristic of these areas: mixed lects and fudged lects. Mixed lects refer to areas where speakers use both pronunciations, while fudged lects refer to areas where speakers produce an intermediate pronunciation between two dialects.

      Another area of study is the birth of new dialects, particularly in territories far removed from the original base of the dialects. For example, the study of Milton Keynes in England shows how the rapid industrial development and influx of people from different regions led to the emergence of a new dialect. Children in Milton Keynes adopted linguistic features from the wider southeastern area and avoided broad, regional variants.

      The chapter also discusses the concept of register, which refers to language variation according to the context in which it is used. Different situations call for adjustments in language, such as speaking to family members, addressing a public gathering, or discussing science with colleagues. Register studies have not had a significant impact in traditional dialect study, but they overlap with the concept of style and are important for understanding language variation.


    • Modern Dialectology

      Social dialectology is a field of study that focuses on the social aspects of language variation within a community. In the past, dialectology primarily focused on regional differences in language, but social dialectology seeks to understand why different accents and ways of speaking arise within the same community. Speech can serve as a marker of social distinctiveness not only in terms of region but also in terms of sex and social standing.


      One example of class and division over accent is the regional feature of the glottal stop in many British varieties of English, such as pronouncing "football" as "foo'ball." While this pronunciation is stigmatized in educational contexts, it is a stable feature and even on the rise. In a short story by George Rew, a student with a distinctive Dundee accent is mocked by his teacher for pronouncing "water" as "wa'er." This excerpt highlights the social divisions and judgments that can arise based on accent.

      Earlier explanations of language variation within a dialect area fell into two categories: dialect mixture and free variation. Dialect mixture refers to the coexistence of multiple dialects within a locality, allowing speakers to draw on different dialects depending on the situation. Free variation, on the other hand, refers to the random use of alternate forms within a particular dialect. However, sociolinguist William Labov argued that language involves "structured heterogeneity," meaning that language variation is systematic and can be explained by social differentiation within speech communities.

      Labov conducted several case studies to demonstrate the principles and methods of variationist sociolinguistics. One study focused on children in New England and their use of the linguistic alternation between "-in" and "-ing" (e.g., "fi shin'" or "fi shing"). Labov found that the use of these variants correlated with specific characteristics of the children, such as sex, class, personality, and formality of the conversation.

      Another case study examined language variation on Martha's Vineyard, an island off the New England coast. Labov studied variations in the diphthongs [ai] and [aυ], specifically focusing on the pronunciation of words like "price," "white," and "right." He found that the pronunciation of these diphthongs varied among different age groups, reflecting changes in speech norms over time.

      A third case study focused on sociolinguistic variation in New York City. Labov examined the pronunciation of postvocalic [r] and the initial sound in words like "thing," "thick," and "thigh" among different social classes and speech styles. He found that there was stratification of the [r] variable according to social class and style, with higher-status groups showing greater use of [r].

      Labov emphasized the importance of fieldwork methods in variationist sociolinguistics. These methods include individual interviews, participant observation, rapid and anonymous surveys, telephone surveys, and field experiments. Each method allows for the collection of data that represents the speech of members of the community under study and provides insight into the social aspects of language variation.

      The chapter discusses the assumptions of early variation theory, focusing on the hierarchical structure of society and the role of social class as a significant factor. The theory suggests that social class, along with other categories such as gender and ethnicity, is associated with language variation. It also proposes that variation in language correlates with the predetermined social hierarchy. The chapter examines the concept of style and its one-dimensional nature according to Labov's account. It also explores Martin Joos's five styles, ranging from intimate to frozen, and highlights the correlation between style and linguistic variants similar to social class. The chapter then delves into a closer look at stylistic and social categories, questioning Labov's account of style and presenting research that challenges and extends some of the assumptions. It discusses the influence of gender, class, and ethnicity on language variation, providing examples from various studies. The chapter concludes by illustrating the practical applications of sociolinguistics in the courtroom, specifically through forensic linguistics. It presents a case in which linguistic analysis was used to provide evidence and establish reasonable doubt, leading to the defendant's acquittal.